Perception of transformational leadership and digital competence with varying degrees of permanence of virtual work: insights on work virtualization during the COVID-19 lockdown

Purpose The Covid-19 pandemic accelerated the shift toward virtualized work, offering new opportunities for autonomy and flexibility while introducing unique challenges. Building on prior research linking transformational leadership and digital competence to positive outcomes in virtual teams, this study aims to examine how the temporal permanence of virtual work relates to employees’ perceptions of transformational leadership and digital competence. Design/methodology/approach Using survey data from 488 professionals across 18 industry clusters in Germany (June–August 2020), this study explores transformational leadership and digital competence during the pandemic. A cluster analysis identifies distinct temporal modes of virtual work based on the conditions before, during and after the pandemic. An analysis of variance examined how these modes affected the perception of transformational leadership and digital competence. Findings The study identifies three distinct modes of temporal permanence in virtual work environments following the pandemic’s onset. It further reveals that employees’ perceptions of transformational leadership and digital competence vary significantly depending on the temporal dimension of work virtualization. Practical implications The findings suggest that organizations should integrate current or planned forms of virtual work into their development strategies, considering tailored interventions for different virtualization modes. Practical approaches for applying these insights in crisis and noncrisis contexts are discussed. Originality/value This research extends existing studies on virtual leadership and competence development by incorporating the temporal dimension of virtual work design. It recontextualizes known mechanisms and raises new questions about the dynamics of virtualized work.